Circuit breaker protection for the primary side of the transformer can be
sized per NEC (National Electrical Code) Article 450-3(b)(2) which states:
”All transformers of 600V, nominal, or less, shall be protected by an
individual overcurrent device on the primary side . . .”
Article 450-3(b)(2) defines guidelines for sizing an overcurrent protection
device. The correct sizing of a transformer primary winding depends upon
whether or not the secondary windings have an overcurrent device.
Overcurrent Device on Primary Winding Only
Source
Device
Load
Up to 125%
of Load
Overcurrent
Primary
A primary overcurrent device can be sized at, but not more than 125% of the
rated transformer load if the secondary side is not protected.
In this application, the primary overcurrent device protects the load as well
as the transformer primary windings.
Overcurrent Devices on Both Primary and Secondary Windings
Source Load
Device
Up to 250%
of Load
Overcurrent
Device
Up to 125%
of Load
Overcurrent
Primary Secondary
An overcurrent device on the primary side can be rated at, but not more than
250% of the rated transformer load, if the secondary side of the transformer
has an overcurrent device rated at but not more than 125% of the rated
transformer load.
In this application, the primary overcurrent device is protecting the
transformer primary windings only.
Friday, 25 November 2011
How to Specify a Grounding Transformer
How to Specify a Grounding Transformer
The basic parameters required for quoting a grounding transformer are:
Primary Voltage - This is the system voltage to which the grounded winding is to be connected. Don't forget to specify the BIL also. In some cases the BIL will be dictated by equipment considerations, such as 150 kV BIL ratings on 34500 volt wind farms because of the limitation on dead front connectors.
Rated KVA - Because the grounding transformer is normally a short time device, its size and cost are less when compared with a continuous duty transformer of equal kVA rating. For this reason, grounding transformers are often not sized by "kVA" but by their continuous and short time current ratings. Regardless of how you rate it, the grounding transformer must be sized to carry the rated continuous primary phase current without exceeding its temperature limit. This load includes the magnetizing current of the core, the capacitive charging current for the cables, and any auxiliary load if applicable. The higher this value, the larger and more costly the transformer will be. Typical continuous current values can be as low as 5 amps to as high as a few hundred. Be sure to include any auxiliary loading requirements.
Continuous Neutral Current - The continuous neutral current is defined as three times the phase to current, or in other words, the zero sequence current. This is usually considered to be zero if the system is balanced. However, for the purposes of designing a grounding transformer, it is a value that is expected to flow in the neutral circuit without tripping protective circuits (which would force the current to be zero) or the leakage current to ground that is not a symmetrical function. Again this value is needed to design for thermal capacity of the grounding transformer.
Fault current and duration - This value is needed to calculate the short time heating that results from a fault on the system and should be determined from an engineered system study. Typical values for this range from a few hundred amps to a few thousand amps with duration times expressed in seconds and not cycles. For instance, a value of 400 amps for 10 seconds is typical. The fault duration is a critical parameter for the transformer designer. Where protection schemes use the grounding transformer for tripping functions, a relatively short time duration is specified (5 -10 seconds). On the other hand, a continuous or extended neutral fault current duration would be required when the grounding transformer is used in a ground fault alarm scheme.
Impedance - The impedance can be expressed as a percentage or as an ohm value per phase. In either case it should be chosen so that the un-faulted phase voltages during a ground fault are within the temporary over-voltage capability of the transformer and associated equipment, such as arresters and terminal connectors. Because of this description, the values can vary from as low as 8% to almost 100%. This value must come from the system designer.
Primary winding connection - Specify the type of primary connection, either Zig-Zag or grounded Wye.
Secondary connection - specify the secondary voltage and connection when applicable.
Specify the size of auxiliary loading to be connected for either Zn or Wye connected primary windings.
If the option is to have a two winding transformer with no secondary load, advise if the delta winding can be "buried" (that is not brought out) or if only one bushing is to be brought out for grounding to the tank or testing.
The basic parameters required for quoting a grounding transformer are:
Primary Voltage - This is the system voltage to which the grounded winding is to be connected. Don't forget to specify the BIL also. In some cases the BIL will be dictated by equipment considerations, such as 150 kV BIL ratings on 34500 volt wind farms because of the limitation on dead front connectors.
Rated KVA - Because the grounding transformer is normally a short time device, its size and cost are less when compared with a continuous duty transformer of equal kVA rating. For this reason, grounding transformers are often not sized by "kVA" but by their continuous and short time current ratings. Regardless of how you rate it, the grounding transformer must be sized to carry the rated continuous primary phase current without exceeding its temperature limit. This load includes the magnetizing current of the core, the capacitive charging current for the cables, and any auxiliary load if applicable. The higher this value, the larger and more costly the transformer will be. Typical continuous current values can be as low as 5 amps to as high as a few hundred. Be sure to include any auxiliary loading requirements.
Continuous Neutral Current - The continuous neutral current is defined as three times the phase to current, or in other words, the zero sequence current. This is usually considered to be zero if the system is balanced. However, for the purposes of designing a grounding transformer, it is a value that is expected to flow in the neutral circuit without tripping protective circuits (which would force the current to be zero) or the leakage current to ground that is not a symmetrical function. Again this value is needed to design for thermal capacity of the grounding transformer.
Fault current and duration - This value is needed to calculate the short time heating that results from a fault on the system and should be determined from an engineered system study. Typical values for this range from a few hundred amps to a few thousand amps with duration times expressed in seconds and not cycles. For instance, a value of 400 amps for 10 seconds is typical. The fault duration is a critical parameter for the transformer designer. Where protection schemes use the grounding transformer for tripping functions, a relatively short time duration is specified (5 -10 seconds). On the other hand, a continuous or extended neutral fault current duration would be required when the grounding transformer is used in a ground fault alarm scheme.
Impedance - The impedance can be expressed as a percentage or as an ohm value per phase. In either case it should be chosen so that the un-faulted phase voltages during a ground fault are within the temporary over-voltage capability of the transformer and associated equipment, such as arresters and terminal connectors. Because of this description, the values can vary from as low as 8% to almost 100%. This value must come from the system designer.
Primary winding connection - Specify the type of primary connection, either Zig-Zag or grounded Wye.
Secondary connection - specify the secondary voltage and connection when applicable.
Specify the size of auxiliary loading to be connected for either Zn or Wye connected primary windings.
If the option is to have a two winding transformer with no secondary load, advise if the delta winding can be "buried" (that is not brought out) or if only one bushing is to be brought out for grounding to the tank or testing.
how to ground a transformer
Grounding Transformers:
Simply put, a grounding transformer is used to provide a ground path to either an ungrounded "Y" or a delta connected system. Grounding transformers are typically used to:
Provide a relatively low impedance path to ground, thereby maintaining the system neutral at or near ground potential
Limit the magnitude of transient over voltages when re-striking ground faults occur
Provide a source of ground fault current during line-to-ground faults
Permit the connection of phase to neutral loads when desired
If a single line-to-ground fault occurs on an ungrounded or isolated system, no return path exists for the fault current, thus no current flows. The system will continue to operate but the other two un-faulted lines will rise in voltage by the square root of 3, resulting in overstressing of the transformer insulation and other associated components on the system by 173%. MOV lightning arresters are particularly susceptible to damage from heating by leakage across the blocks even if the voltage increase is not sufficient to flash over. A grounding transformer provides a ground path to prevent this.
Large multi-turbine wind farms provide an example of the use of grounding transformers for fault protection on ungrounded lines. In many wind farms the substation transformer provides the sole ground source for the distribution system. When a ground fault on a collector cable causes the substation circuit breaker for that cable to open, the wind turbine string becomes isolated from the ground source. The turbines do not always detect this fault or the fact that the string is isolated and ungrounded; thus the generators continue to energize the collector cable, and the voltages between the un-faulted cables and the ground rise far above the normal voltage magnitude as described above. A grounding transformer placed on the turbine string provides a ground path in the event the string becomes isolated from the system ground.
Construction:
Grounding transformers are normally constructed either with
A ZigZag (Zn) connected winding with or without an auxiliary winding or
As a Wye (Ynd) connected winding with a delta connected secondary that may or may not be used to supply auxiliary power
The geometry of the Zig-Zag connection is useful to limit circulation of third harmonics and can be used without a Delta connected winding or the 4- or 5-leg core design normally used for this purpose in distribution and power transformers. Eliminating the need for a secondary winding can make this option both less expensive and smaller than a comparable two-winding grounding transformer. Furthermore, use of a Zig-Zag transformer provides grounding with a smaller unit than a two-winding Wye-Delta transformer providing the same zero sequence impedance.
Wye connected grounding transformers, on the other hand, require either a delta connected secondary or the application of 4 or 5 leg core construction to provide a return flux path for unbalanced loading associated with this primary connection. Since it is often desirable to provide auxiliary power from the grounding transformer secondary winding, this benefit can sway the end user to specify a two-winding grounding transformer in lieu of a Zig-Zag connection. The current trend in wind farm designs is toward the Wye connected primary with a delta secondary.
It is important to understand that both Zig-Zag and two-winding grounding transformers can be provided with the ability to provide auxiliary power, and this can be either a Wye or Delta connected load.
A solidly grounded system using a grounding transformer offers many safety improvements over an ungrounded system. However, the ground transformer alone lacks the current limiting ability of a resistive grounding system. For this reason, neutral ground resistors are often used in conjunction with the grounding transformer to limit neutral ground fault current magnitude. Their ohm values should be specified to allow high enough ground fault current flow to permit reliable operation of the protective relaying equipment, but low enough to limit thermal damage.
Simply put, a grounding transformer is used to provide a ground path to either an ungrounded "Y" or a delta connected system. Grounding transformers are typically used to:
Provide a relatively low impedance path to ground, thereby maintaining the system neutral at or near ground potential
Limit the magnitude of transient over voltages when re-striking ground faults occur
Provide a source of ground fault current during line-to-ground faults
Permit the connection of phase to neutral loads when desired
If a single line-to-ground fault occurs on an ungrounded or isolated system, no return path exists for the fault current, thus no current flows. The system will continue to operate but the other two un-faulted lines will rise in voltage by the square root of 3, resulting in overstressing of the transformer insulation and other associated components on the system by 173%. MOV lightning arresters are particularly susceptible to damage from heating by leakage across the blocks even if the voltage increase is not sufficient to flash over. A grounding transformer provides a ground path to prevent this.
Large multi-turbine wind farms provide an example of the use of grounding transformers for fault protection on ungrounded lines. In many wind farms the substation transformer provides the sole ground source for the distribution system. When a ground fault on a collector cable causes the substation circuit breaker for that cable to open, the wind turbine string becomes isolated from the ground source. The turbines do not always detect this fault or the fact that the string is isolated and ungrounded; thus the generators continue to energize the collector cable, and the voltages between the un-faulted cables and the ground rise far above the normal voltage magnitude as described above. A grounding transformer placed on the turbine string provides a ground path in the event the string becomes isolated from the system ground.
Construction:
Grounding transformers are normally constructed either with
A ZigZag (Zn) connected winding with or without an auxiliary winding or
As a Wye (Ynd) connected winding with a delta connected secondary that may or may not be used to supply auxiliary power
The geometry of the Zig-Zag connection is useful to limit circulation of third harmonics and can be used without a Delta connected winding or the 4- or 5-leg core design normally used for this purpose in distribution and power transformers. Eliminating the need for a secondary winding can make this option both less expensive and smaller than a comparable two-winding grounding transformer. Furthermore, use of a Zig-Zag transformer provides grounding with a smaller unit than a two-winding Wye-Delta transformer providing the same zero sequence impedance.
Wye connected grounding transformers, on the other hand, require either a delta connected secondary or the application of 4 or 5 leg core construction to provide a return flux path for unbalanced loading associated with this primary connection. Since it is often desirable to provide auxiliary power from the grounding transformer secondary winding, this benefit can sway the end user to specify a two-winding grounding transformer in lieu of a Zig-Zag connection. The current trend in wind farm designs is toward the Wye connected primary with a delta secondary.
It is important to understand that both Zig-Zag and two-winding grounding transformers can be provided with the ability to provide auxiliary power, and this can be either a Wye or Delta connected load.
A solidly grounded system using a grounding transformer offers many safety improvements over an ungrounded system. However, the ground transformer alone lacks the current limiting ability of a resistive grounding system. For this reason, neutral ground resistors are often used in conjunction with the grounding transformer to limit neutral ground fault current magnitude. Their ohm values should be specified to allow high enough ground fault current flow to permit reliable operation of the protective relaying equipment, but low enough to limit thermal damage.
Sunday, 20 November 2011
Reactive Power
Reactive power is an odd topic in AC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's usually explained with vector mathematics or phase-shift sinewave graphs. However, a non-math verbal explanation is possible.
Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" or a home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored, and it can be analysed using an AC version of Ohm's law.
Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply. Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical energy, and where the electrical energy flows continously in one direction; moving from source to load.
In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance, then electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current which heats the power lines, but which isn't used to provide energy to the appliance. The coil or capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back and forth between the appliance and the distant AC generator. Electric companies must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess current, and they will charge extra for this "unused" energy.
This undesired "energy sloshing" effect can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a coil and capacitor, and if their resonant frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and capacitor like magic will begin to behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all happening between the coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power lines. So, if your appliance contains a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and reduce the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance across the motor coil.
Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely obscure. And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is not the only problem. Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade school that an electric current is a flow of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in AC power lines. This is completely wrong. In fact the energy flows constantly forward, going from source to load. It's only the charges of the metal wires which flow back and forth.
Imagine that we connect a battery to a light bulb. Electric charges already present inside the wires will begin to flow in the circle, and then electrical energy moves almost instantly to the light bulb. The charge flow is circular like a belt, but the energy flow is one-way. Now imagine that we suddenly reverse the connections to the battery. The voltage and current will reverse... but the energy still flows in the same direction as before. It still goes from battery to bulb. If we keep reversing the battery connections over and over, we'd have an AC system. So, in an AC system, only the voltage and current are "alternating," while the electrical energy flows one-way, going from source to load. Where AC resistive loads are concerned, electrical energy does not "alternate." To understand energy flow in AC systems, it's critically important that we understand the difference between charge flow (current, amperes) and energy flow (power, watts.)
What is imaginary power? Simple: it's the unused power which flows backwards and forwards in the power lines, going back and forth between the load's coil or capacitor and the distant AC generator. If your appliance was a pure capacitor or inductor, then it would consume no electrical energy at all, but instead all the flowing energy would take the form of "sloshing energy," and we'd call it "imaginary power." Of course it's not actually imaginary. Instead it's reflected by the load.
What is real power? Even more simple: it's the energy flow which goes continuously from the AC generator and into the appliance, without any of it returning back to the distant generator.
Finally, what is "reactive" power? It's just the combination of the above two ideas: it is the continous-forward-moving or "real" energy flow, combined with the sloshing or "imaginary" energy flow.
Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_reactive_power#ixzz1eEV3VG9B
Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" or a home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored, and it can be analysed using an AC version of Ohm's law.
Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply. Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical energy, and where the electrical energy flows continously in one direction; moving from source to load.
In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance, then electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current which heats the power lines, but which isn't used to provide energy to the appliance. The coil or capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back and forth between the appliance and the distant AC generator. Electric companies must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess current, and they will charge extra for this "unused" energy.
This undesired "energy sloshing" effect can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a coil and capacitor, and if their resonant frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and capacitor like magic will begin to behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all happening between the coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power lines. So, if your appliance contains a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and reduce the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance across the motor coil.
Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely obscure. And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is not the only problem. Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade school that an electric current is a flow of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in AC power lines. This is completely wrong. In fact the energy flows constantly forward, going from source to load. It's only the charges of the metal wires which flow back and forth.
Imagine that we connect a battery to a light bulb. Electric charges already present inside the wires will begin to flow in the circle, and then electrical energy moves almost instantly to the light bulb. The charge flow is circular like a belt, but the energy flow is one-way. Now imagine that we suddenly reverse the connections to the battery. The voltage and current will reverse... but the energy still flows in the same direction as before. It still goes from battery to bulb. If we keep reversing the battery connections over and over, we'd have an AC system. So, in an AC system, only the voltage and current are "alternating," while the electrical energy flows one-way, going from source to load. Where AC resistive loads are concerned, electrical energy does not "alternate." To understand energy flow in AC systems, it's critically important that we understand the difference between charge flow (current, amperes) and energy flow (power, watts.)
What is imaginary power? Simple: it's the unused power which flows backwards and forwards in the power lines, going back and forth between the load's coil or capacitor and the distant AC generator. If your appliance was a pure capacitor or inductor, then it would consume no electrical energy at all, but instead all the flowing energy would take the form of "sloshing energy," and we'd call it "imaginary power." Of course it's not actually imaginary. Instead it's reflected by the load.
What is real power? Even more simple: it's the energy flow which goes continuously from the AC generator and into the appliance, without any of it returning back to the distant generator.
Finally, what is "reactive" power? It's just the combination of the above two ideas: it is the continous-forward-moving or "real" energy flow, combined with the sloshing or "imaginary" energy flow.
Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_reactive_power#ixzz1eEV3VG9B
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